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depletion that may contribute to anthropogenic subsidence and thus increase coastal flood risk. Recent studies also suggest that My hero academia anime shota aizawa 3d night light led  the influence of land-surface inundation on seawater intrusion and resulting salinisation of groundwater lenses on small islands has been underestimated until now Ataie-Ashtiani , Ketabchi . Such impacts will potentially also combine with a

My hero academia anime shota aizawa 3d night light led

coastal governance, little attention has been focused explicitly on SLR governance, as was also the case in AR Wong . Furthermore, much of the adaptation governance literature has focused on putting forward normative prescriptions on how governance arrangements ought to be , transformative governance; Chaffin , but with limited empirical evidence on the actual effectiveness of these prescriptions Klostermann , Runhaar . Hence, understanding the social mechanisms leading to the emergence of particular governance arrangements, and how effective they are in addressing climate change and SLR, is limited My hero academia anime shota aizawa 3d night light led . An important post-AR development has thus been to move beyond descriptions and normative prescriptions about ‘good governance’ to explore which factors help or hinder how social choices are made and implemented on complex issues like climate change and SLR, as elaborated in the next sub. Governance is pivotal to shaping SLR responses. The assessment of SLR responses above has shown that each type of response raises specific governance challenges associated with the distribution of costs, benefits and negative consequences of responses across societal actors. Hence, SLR responses require governance efforts if social conflicts are to be resolved and mutual opportunities amongst all actors realised. Generally, responses involve the interaction of diverse public and private actors at different levels of decision making with divergent values, interests and goals on coastal activities, lifestyles, livelihoods, risks, resilience and sustainability high confidence . This leads to a number of overarching governance challenges that arise from the nature of SLR, which will be assessed in this . While accommodation measures to coastal hazards are often taking place at the local level, and are decided by individual homeowners, farmers or communities, from a governance perspective it is important to provide guidance on how and to what extent owners can retrofit their homes to reduce the risk to coastal flooding. In New York City, for instance, changes to building codes, require elevating, or flood proofing of existing and new buildings in the -year floodplain, and prevent construction of critical infrastructure like hospitals in the flood zone NY see also Box .. While there are projections available of ecosystem responses to climate change and SLR ., to date, there are no large-scale projections available on the future extent of EbA.

However, several coastal nations, particularly Small Island Developing States explicitly advocate EbA measures as a means to address future coastal hazard and SLR concerns. Based on Nationally Determined Contributions submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , more than SIDS cite EbA as a preferred SLR response, with mangrove planting being the most common measure . SLR was also shown to decrease organic carbon concentrations and stocks in sediments of salt marshes as reworked marine particles contribute with a lower amount of Corg than terrigenous sediments. Corg accumulation in tropical salt marshes can be as high as in mangroves and the reduction of Corg stocks by ongoing SLR might cause high CO releases  . In many cases attribution to SLR is missing, but, independent from clear attribution, sea water intrusion leads to a salinisation of exposed soils with changes in carbon dynamics  , and microbial communities  , soil enzyme activity and metal toxicity Zheng . Water salinity levels in the pores of coastal marsh soils can become significantly elevated in just one week of flooding by sea water, which can potentially negatively impact associated microbial communities for significantly longer time periods McKee . SLR will also alter the frequency and magnitude of wetdry periods and salinity levels in coastal ecosystems, with consequences for the formation of climate relevant GHGs Liu , b and therefore feedbacks to the climate. These changes will affect both freshwater availability and vegetation dynamics. At many locations, however, direct anthropogenic influences, such as groundwater pumping for agricultural or urban uses, already impact salinisation of coastal aquifers more strongly than what is expected from SLR in the st century Ferguson and Gleeson, Jiménez Cisneros , Uddameri , with trade-offs in terms of groundwater

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