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However, on the global scale, the uptake of index insurance is still low Yuzva . Following earlier IPCC Reports Protection, Retreat and Accommodation responses to SLR and its impacts are distinguished between Nicholls , Tokoyami fumikage my hero academia anime 3d night light led Wong , and Advance is added as a fourth type of response that consists in building seaward and upward

Tokoyami fumikage my hero academia anime 3d night light led

assessed that, when applied in combination, can help to address the governance challenges identified, facilitating social choices about SLR responses … Finally, enablers and lessons learned from practical efforts to implement SLR responses are assessed ., concluding with a synthesis emphasising the utility of climate resilient development pathways … In most places around the world, current annual mean rates of RSL changes are typically on the order of a few mm yr see ure .. Risk associated with changing sea level also is related to individual events that have a limited duration, superimposed on the background of these gradual changes. As a result, the gradual changes in time and space have to be assessed together with processes that lead to flooding and erosion events. These processes include storm surges, waves and tides or a combination of these Tokoyami fumikage my hero academia anime 3d night light led processes and lead to ESL events see ure .. In this , newly emerging understanding of these different episodic and gradual aspects of sea level change are assessed, within a context of sea level changes measured directly over the last century, and those inferred for longer geological time scales. This longer-term perspective is important for contextualising future projections of sea level and providing guidance for process-based models of the individual components of SLR, in particular the ice sheets. In addition, anthropogenic subsidence may affect local sea level substantially in many locations but this process is not taken into account in values reported here for projected SLR unless specifically noted. Another major issue is the effect on bearing capacity of the ground. In many coastal zones, as the ground consists of loose sediment deposition, its bearing capacity is not high by its nature. In addition to this, sea-level rise raises the water in the aquifers, increasing the risk of liquefaction due to earthquakes, and reducing bearing capacity of the ground. Reduction of stability of engineering structures, such as river dykes and seawalls, is also a problem. A case study for the coastal area in Tokyo Bay suggested an increase of liquefaction potential as a result of the combined effect of sea-level rise and higher river level. Further, studies indicate a higher river surface level and salinity intrusion may bring about adverse effects on the stability of river dykes.

Such concerns have not attracted much attention so far. However, these are potentially important issues, especially for countries which have wide reclaimed lands in coastal zones and frequent earthquakes. In the future, we need to promote studies on the compound disasters of climate change and natural hazards such as earthquakes in order to better manage the social risks. Climate risk insurance schemes have been recently developed to address sudden, and in rare cases, slow onset hazards at the coast, and to increase overall resilience. For coastal risks, insurance is mainly applicable for sudden onset hazards, including storm surges and coastal flooding, to buffer against the financial impacts of loss events. For slow onset hazards, insurance schemes are not the first-best tool, whereas resilience building and prevention of loss and damage in such instances may be more cost-effective ways to address these risks Warner . In this context, index based insurance products are increasingly offered, particularly in low-income countries and have also been included in a number of countries in their NDCs and in some cases in their National Adaptation Plans NAPs; Kreft . Countries with existing climate risk insurance schemes include, for example, Haiti, Maldives, Seychelles and Vietnam. The InsuResilience Global Partnership for Climate and Disaster Risk Finance and Insurance Solutions was launched at the UN Climate Conference in Bonn. InsuResilience aims to enable more timely response after a disaster and helps to better prepare for climate and disaster risk through the use of climate and disaster risk finance and insurance solutions. So far, climate risk insurance was used mainly in the context of agriculture, where it has showed great efficacy in boosting investments for increasing productivity Fernandez and Schäfer.

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